Like a tale whispered by the wind or a fleeting dream upon waking, the beauty of Madinat al-Zahra, the legendary “shining city” of Islam in Andalusia, was ethereal. Later generations of poets remembered this magnificent place for its boundless wealth and sumptuous palaces adorned with fountains and gardens. From here the Umayyad ruler Abd al-Rahman III exercised political and religious authority over the Caliphate of Córdoba. The city sprang up seemingly by magic in a very short time from 936 onward, thanks to impressive organisation employing labourers from across the Islamic world. Set on terraces descending from the foothills of the Sierra Morena, Madinat al-Zahra was structured according to a strict spatial hierarchy. At the top stood the alcázar, the military centre and the caliph’s residence. Below it lay the administrative quarters, while the medina, the urban and residential area of the city, extended across the lower terraces.
Court life unfolded amid state rooms and sumptuous service quarters, punctuated by solemn ceremonies that culminated in the Audience Hall. In the presence of visiting foreign ambassadors, the lighting and decoration were designed to exalt the caliph as the upholder of political and moral order. However, Madinat al-Zahra disappeared just as quickly as it had been built. From 1010 onwards, during the period of civil war known as the Fitna, the city was plundered and devastated. Eventually it fell into ruin with the collapse of the Caliphate of Córdoba in the early 11th century. Contemporaries met its destruction with despair and nostalgia. Madinat al-Zahra thus became a metaphor for a mythical, unattainable place, a lost paradise destined never to reappear on earth.
Abd al-Rahman III, the great Umayyad ruler of al-Andalus
In the early 10th century, the Emirate of Al-Andalus, the westernmost region of the known world, was the last kingdom of the Umayyad dynasty. When Abd al-Rahman III inherited the throne in 912, he embraced an ambitious vision: to restore his family to its former glory and revive the splendour of the years when a powerful caliphate had ruled from Damascus. Yet the Islamic world now had new masters. Since 750, the Abbasids had ruled much of the Middle East, while the Fatimids had established themselves in North Africa. Furthermore, the north of the Iberian Peninsula was occupied by the menacing Christian Kingdom of León.
Even within Al-Andalus itself, Abd al-Rahman III had numerous enemies. The rebel Omar ibn Hafsun had sparked a major uprising and gained control of part of the southern region. The rebels, Muslims and Mozarabic Christians united by anti-Umayyad sentiment, had entrenched themselves within a formidable network of fortifications. The most important of these was the legendary, impregnable stronghold of Omar ibn Hafsun at Bobastro. This was located near Ardales, between Antequera and Ronda, in an area known as Las Mesas de Villaverde1.
Upon taking power, Abd al-Rahman III commissioned the construction of a new fleet to sever the lines of communication between the rebels, led by the sons of Omar ibn Hafsun, and their Fatimid allies in North Africa. He then began laying siege to enemy fortifications. The plan succeeded, and over the next fifteen years the Emir was able to pacify the region and re-establish central authority, though not without bloody fighting. The struggle to capture the stronghold of Bobastro was particularly fierce, and it only surrendered on 19 January 928.
The Caliphate of Córdoba and the construction of Madinat al-Zahra
After consolidating his control over Al-Andalus, Abd al-Rahman III launched a series of initiatives to enhance the prestige of the Umayyad dynasty. In 929, he took the momentous step of proclaiming himself caliph, thereby asserting both political and religious authority. This move placed him in open opposition to the Abbasids of Baghdad and the Fatimids of North Africa. Under Abd al-Rahman III, the Caliphate of Córdoba emerged as one of the foremost centres of power, culture and splendour in the Medieval Islamic world.
To demonstrate the supremacy of the Umayyads over the entire world, Abd al-Rahman III ordered the construction of a magnificent capital city in 936. Madinat al-Zahra was intended to be the “shining city” of all Muslims. It was given the same royal title as Muhammad’s daughter, Fatima al-Zahra2. Representing Islam’s purest roots, the city was a symbolic representation of the paradise described in the Qur’an, with its gardens and palaces bathed in light3. According to legend, the Caliph built the city out of love for his favourite concubine, Azahara4.
The city of Madinat al-Zahra
Madinat al-Zahra was meticulously designed and constructed over a period of roughly forty years. Twenty-five years fell under the caliphate of Abd al-Rahman III. A further fifteen were under his son, Al-Hakam II. Its creation required a vast economic and organisational effort5. The capital was built on a plateau at the foot of the Sierra Morena. It lies six kilometres from Córdoba and covers an area of 112 hectares. The site was chosen for its strategic position, overlooking the Guadalquivir valley to the south, as well as for the availability of local building materials, including white, purple and reddish limestone, and marble. Local craftsmen executed the works according to Andalusian urban and architectural models6, which from the mid-10th century increasingly incorporated Abbasid influences.
A hierarchical structure
Madinat al-Zahra was arranged in tiers connected by stairways. The alcázar, the caliph’s fortress and residence, was located at the highest point on the hill. From there, it overlooked the administrative offices and the palace of the crown prince, Al-Hakam II. Further down the slope lay the medina, comprising neighbourhoods for the general population and servants. The city’s main mosque, the Mezquita Aljama, stood to the southwest of the alcázar. Similar to the mosque in Córdoba, it featured a tall minaret from which muezzins called the faithful to prayer along the road connecting the Guadalquivir Valley to Córdoba6.
Madinat al-Zahra had four gates for entering the city. The northern gate led to the alcázar, serving as the entrance for transporting food and goods for the caliph. This gate had a typical military L-shaped design to make it easier to defend against attack. The most monumental entrance, however, faced east. It consisted of a series of large arches opening onto an esplanade where parades and military gatherings took place. From a tower above, Abd al-Rahman III could personally encourage his troops as they set out for battle. At the same time, the eastern gate served as a ceremonial entrance for foreign delegations and ambassadors.
In Madinat al-Zahra, the water supply came from the nearby Roman aqueduct at Valdepuentes, restored for this purpose. From there, water was distributed through a complex system of canals extending throughout the city. Accessible water was provided by a considerable number of fountains and marble basins. These were often located in the centre of patios and within domestic gardens.
The alcázar of Madinat al-Zahra
The alcázar of Madinat al-Zahra was an extensive palace complex consisting of a variety of buildings. These were all surrounded by a fortified wall with towers. The caliph’s private residence, the Dar al-Mulk, stood at the highest point and overlooked the entire valley below. The building served as the centre of power from which Abd al-Rahman III exercised his political and religious authority over al-Andalus. The residence’s elevated position, conceived as a sacred centre, was intended to emphasize to his subjects his role as God’s representative and, therefore, as the legitimate leader of all Muslims on earth. Some rooms adjacent to the hall of Abd al-Rahman III likely served as service spaces supporting official ceremonies.
At least two other residential complexes stood within the walls of the alcázar. One of these was a majestic building with a large garden enclosed by triple horseshoe-shaped arcades adorned with vegetal motifs. This building belonged to the heir to the throne, Prince al-Hakam7. The fortified citadel also housed the residence of Abd al-Rahman III’s hajib (Prime Minister), Yafar al-Siqlabi. This highly influential figure coordinated officials, managed finances and bureaucratic affairs, organised court life and oversaw ceremonial arrangements for visits to the caliph.
The administrative buildings
All these activities took place in the administrative and ceremonial offices of the capital. Among these was the Basilica Hall, also known as the “Military House” (Dar al-Yund), which overlooked a square on the upper terrace. This hall also allowed access for mounted riders. Here, visiting delegations arriving through the eastern gate waited to be received by the caliph8. The administrative offices and state archives occupied a large quadrangular portico with pillars known as the “House of the Viziers” (Dar al-Wusara). Adjacent to this stood a trapezoidal space that most likely served as the citadel’s military guardhouse.
The Courtroom
However, the centrepiece of political life in Madinat al-Zahra was the sumptuous Audience Hall (Salón Rico). After touring the city, ambassadors and distinguished guests were received by Abd al-Rahman III in this hall, according to a refined ceremonial protocol. The two major Islamic festivals, the Feast of Breaking the Fast (Eid al-Fitr) and the Feast of Sacrifice (Eid al-Adha), were also celebrated in the great hall9. The presence of a vast, flat, quadrangular garden evoked the sacred nature of the place, a spiritual space of light and water that foreshadowed paradise on earth. At the centre of this garden stood a pavilion surrounded by four pools.
“As for those who believe and do good, We will admit them into Gardens under which rivers flow, to stay there for ever and ever. There they will have pure spouses, and We will place them under a vast shad”.
Quran, Sūra IV, An-Nisā’, 57.
Beyond the entrance, consisting of five horseshoe arches, the great audience hall opened up in all its splendour. The beauty and decorative opulence of the interior were awe-inspiring. The interplay of light, precious materials, and intricate ornamentation conveyed a profound sense of solemnity, enhancing the prestige of the Caliph. Elegant vegetal and geometric motifs in finely carved stucco alternated with arches marked by red and white bands, dividing the space into an endless, rhythmic sequence of forms and colours. An ornamentation of branches and shrubs, known as the “Tree of life”, wound its way upwards. Along the upper register, a frieze with star-shaped motifs unfolded. The symbolic meaning of the decoration is clear: the Caliph, chosen by Allah, acts as the intermediary between the cosmos and the natural order of the earth.
The fall of Madinat al-Zahra
Much to the despair of many, the splendour of Madinat al-Zahra did not last. Following al-Hakam II’s death in 976, his son Hisham II succeeded him. However, the new ruler was too young and inexperienced to govern effectively. Thus, control of the Caliphate passed into the hands of the hajib, Ibn Abi Amir11. To mark his seizure of power, Ibn Abi Amir ordered the construction of a new capital city to the east of Córdoba12. Consequently, all government activities and the caliph’s court were transferred to the new capital, and Madinat al-Zahra fell into disuse. Its final ruin came during the period of the fitna (civil war), which led to the fall of the Caliphate of Córdoba and the fragmentation of Al-Andalus into small kingdoms known as taifas in 1031. Between 1010 and 1013, Berber forces attacked and devastated the city until its population finally abandoned it.
“The halls beside the courtyards gleam,
From a poem by Muhiya al-Din ibn al-‘Arabi, late 12th century13, translated by the author.
but they are empty and in ruins.
Birds moan from every corner,
sometimes in silence and at other times cooing.
I turned to one of those winged singers,
who had a sad heart and was trembling.
‘Why do you moan so melancholy?’, I asked,
He replied, ‘For an age now lost, forever’”.
Since then, the memory of Madinat al-Zahra has been shrouded in myth. Yet, as the last rays of evening light fall across the ruins, the remains of Islam’s “shining city” seem to emerge from the realm of legend. Before the monumental Audience Hall, shadows appear to dissolve in reverence, as if entering the presence of Abd al-Rahman III, the great Caliph of Córdoba in Al-Andalus.
Samuele Corrente Naso
Notes
- M. Villagra, S. Dean, Umar Ibn Hafsun: the man who would be emir, in Medieval Warfare, Vol. 5, No. 4, 2015. ↩︎
- M. Fierro, Madinat al-Zahra, el Paraíso y los fatimíes, in Al-Qantara, XXV, 2, 2004. ↩︎
- A. Vallejo Triano, Madinat al-Zahra: historical reality and present-day heritage, in Reflections on Qurtuba in the 21st Century, Madrid, 2013. ↩︎
- Ahmed ibn Mohammed Al-Makkari, Nafḥ al-Ṭı̄b min Ghuṣn al-Andalus al-Raṭı̄b, in I. ‘Abbās, Dār Ṣādir, Beirut, 1968. ↩︎
- A. Vallejo Triano, Madinat Al-Zahra; Transformation of a Caliphal City, In G. D. Anderson, M. Rosser-Owen, Revisiting al-Andalus: perspectives on the material culture of Islamic Iberia and beyond, Brill, 2007. ↩︎
- C. Ewert, Precursores de Madinat al-Zahra. Los palacios omeyas y abbasíes de Oriente y su ceremonial áulico, in Cuadernos de Madinat al-Zahra, III, 1991. ↩︎
- F. Zoido Naranjo, Dimensión paisajística de Madinat al-Zahra, Universidad de Sevilla, Grupo de Investigación Consejería de Cultura, Seville, 2005. ↩︎
- A. Vallejo Triano, La ciudad califal de Madinat al-Zahra, in Arqueología de su arquitectura, Almuzara, Cordova, 2010. ↩︎
- Ibidem. ↩︎
- Ibidem. ↩︎
- A. Almagro Gorbea, Fondo gráfico donado por el Académico D. Antonio Almagro Gorbea, Academia colecciones, immagine n. inv. AA-108_i30. ↩︎
- H. Kennedy, Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus, Routledge, 1996. ↩︎
- Although all traces of this city have been lost, we know from historical sources that it was called Madinat al-Zahira. See: L. Bariani, Al-Madîna al-Zâhira según el testimonio de las fuentes árabo-andalusíes, II Congreso Internacional la Ciudad en Al-Andalus y el Magreb, 2002. ↩︎
- Cited in Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad Maqqarī, Analectes sur l’histoire et la littérature des Arabes d’Espagne, edited by R. Dozy et al., I, 344, Londra, 1967. ↩︎
